At the Centre for Psychodynamic Insights, we use various schools of thought to create a comprehensive, unique, and individualized approach to psychotherapy for each patient.

Common schools of thought used are:

Freudian (Classical) Psychoanalysis

Founded by Sigmund Freud, this school focuses on unconscious conflicts, childhood experiences, psychosexual development, and the structural model of the mind (id, ego, superego). Freudian therapy focuses on uncovering repressed emotions and early life experiences that shape current behaviours and feelings. Using techniques such as free association, dream analysis, and exploration of transference, the therapist helps patients bring unconscious material into conscious awareness. This process allows individuals to gain insight into the roots of their emotional struggles, reduce internal conflicts, and develop healthier ways of thinking and relating to themselves and others.

Ego Psychology

Developed by Anna Freud, Heinz Hartmann, Erik Erikson, and others, Ego Psychology emphasizes the ego’s role in mediating between unconscious drives and reality, highlighting defense mechanisms and adaptation. Hartmann introduced ego functions like perception and problem-solving, suggesting parts of the ego operate independently of conflict, while Anna Freud expanded on defense mechanisms. Erikson linked psychosocial development to identity and mental health. This approach is widely used in psychodynamic psychotherapy to strengthen coping mechanisms, self-regulation, and improve resilience, making it effective in treating anxiety, depression, personality disorders, and other difficulties.

Object Relations Theory

Led by Melanie Klein, Donald Winnicott, Otto Kernberg, and others, this theory explores how early relationships with parents and caregivers shape personality and emotional development. Object Relations Theory emphasizes that internalized experiences of caregivers, or “objects,” influence how individuals perceive themselves and relate to others throughout life. Klein introduced the concept of splitting, where children categorize experiences as entirely good or bad, while Winnicott highlighted the “good enough mother” and the transitional object in healthy emotional development. Kernberg explored how early attachment patterns contribute to personality development. This approach is widely used in psychodynamic psychotherapy to address relational difficulties, attachment trauma, and personality disorders by helping patients develop healthier interpersonal patterns and a more integrated sense of self.

Self Psychology

Introduced by Heinz Kohut, this school focuses on the development of the self, the importance of empathy, and how failures in mirroring and self-cohesion contribute to psychological distress. Self Psychology focuses on how a cohesive sense of self is formed through relationships with responsive parents and caregivers who provide validation and support. Kohut identified key selfobject needs, such as mirroring (validation), idealization (looking up to a strong figure), and twinship (feeling similar to others), which, when unmet, can lead to low self-esteem and difficulties in emotional regulation. This approach is widely used in psychodynamic psychotherapy to improve self-cohesion, self-worth, and process early relational experiences, making it effective for treating trauma, depression, and attachment-related difficulties, amongst others.

Lacanian Psychoanalysis

Founded by Jacques Lacan, this approach integrates structural linguistics and philosophy, emphasizing the unconscious as structured like a language, the mirror stage, and the Real, Symbolic, and Imaginary orders. Lacan proposed that identity is shaped through language and social structures, with the mirror stage marking the formation of the ego as an illusion of coherence. The Real represents what is beyond language and cannot be fully grasped, the Symbolic encompasses societal rules and language, and the Imaginary relates to perception and self-image. Lacanian psychoanalysis focuses on how desires are shaped by language and how individuals misrecognize themselves through symbolic structures. In psychodynamic therapy, it emphasizes the role of speech, free association, and the analysis of linguistic patterns to uncover unconscious conflicts and reshape the patient’s relationship to desire and meaning.

Jungian (Analytical) Psychology

Developed by Carl Jung, this school expands beyond Freudian concepts to include the collective unconscious, archetypes, individuation, and the integration of opposites within the psyche. Jung proposed that beyond personal unconscious material, individuals share a deeper layer of inherited symbols and patterns known as archetypes, such as the Shadow, Anima/Animus, and the Self. Individuation, the process of integrating unconscious and conscious aspects of the self, is crucial to psychological growth. Jung also emphasized the balance of opposing forces within the psyche, such as rational and intuitive thinking or masculine and feminine energies. Jungian therapy uses dream analysis, active imagination, and symbolic interpretation to facilitate self-discovery, helping patients achieve a more authentic and integrated sense of self.

Interpersonal Psychoanalysis

Originated by Harry Stack Sullivan, this theory emphasizes interpersonal relationships, social contexts, and communication patterns in shaping personality and psychopathology. Interpersonal Psychoanalysis views mental health struggles as rooted in problematic relational patterns rather than solely intrapsychic conflicts. Sullivan introduced the concept of the “self-system,” which develops through interactions with others and serves to reduce anxiety. He emphasized that personality is fluid and shaped by social exchanges, particularly early parent and caregiver relationships. Psychodynamic therapy focuses on exploring recurring interpersonal patterns, addressing social anxieties, and improving communication to create healthier relationships. This approach is especially effective for treating mood disorders, social difficulties, and personality disorders by enhancing self-awareness and healthy relational dynamics.

Relational Psychoanalysis

Developed by Stephen Mitchell, Jessica Benjamin, and others, this approach integrates object relations and interpersonal perspectives, emphasizing the co-construction of meaning in therapeutic relationships. Relational Psychoanalysis suggests that identity and psychological well-being are shaped through dynamic interactions with others, both past and present. It challenges the traditional idea of an objective analyst, instead viewing therapy as a mutual process where both psychotherapist and patient influence each other. Benjamin introduced the concept of mutual recognition, highlighting the need for balance between autonomy and connection in relationships. Psychodynamic therapy focuses on uncovering unconscious relational patterns, exploring power dynamics, and creating new ways of relating, making it particularly effective for trauma, attachment difficulties, and personality disorders.

Attachment Theory

Founded by John Bowlby and expanded by Mary Ainsworth, this school explores the impact of early attachment experiences on emotional regulation, relationship patterns, and psychological health. Attachment Theory suggests that early bonds with parents and caregivers shape an individual’s expectations of relationships and influence their ability to manage stress and emotions. Ainsworth identified attachment styles—secure, anxious, avoidant, and disorganized—based on how caregivers respond to a child’s needs. These patterns persist into adulthood, impacting intimacy, trust, and relational dynamics. Psychodynamic therapy based on Attachment Theory helps patients recognize and reshape maladaptive attachment patterns, develop healthier relationships, and improve emotional regulation.

Neuropsychoanalysis

Neuropsychoanalysis is a contemporary approach merging psychoanalysis with neuroscience, pioneered by Mark Solms and Jaak Panksepp, which focuses on the biological basis of unconscious processes, emotions, and memory. Neuropsychoanalysis seeks to bridge the gap between brain function and psychoanalytic concepts, examining how neural mechanisms underpin drives, affect regulation, and unconscious conflict. Solms has linked Freudian ideas like repression and the unconscious to brain structures involved in emotion and decision-making, while Panksepp’s research on affective neuroscience highlights the role of core emotional systems in shaping behaviour. This approach informs Psychodynamic therapy by integrating insights from both disciplines to better understand difficulties like trauma, mood disorders, and personality disorders, and offers a more comprehensive view of psychological functioning and treatment.

Adlerian Psychology (Individual Psychology)

Founded by Alfred Adler, this approach emphasizes social interest, inferiority and superiority complexes, and the role of personal goals and lifestyle in shaping personality. Adlerian Psychology views human behaviour as goal-directed, with individuals striving for significance and belonging within their social environment. Adler introduced the concept of the "inferiority complex," where feelings of inadequacy drive compensation through personal growth or maladaptive behaviours. He also emphasized lifestyle, or one’s unique pattern of beliefs and behaviours, as central to personality development. Psychodynamic therapy focuses on identifying certain beliefs, creating social connection, and encouraging personal responsibility.

Neo-Freudian Psychology

This broad category includes theorists like Karen Horney, Erich Fromm, and Harry Stack Sullivan, who retained core psychoanalytic concepts but placed greater emphasis on cultural, social, and interpersonal factors. Neo-Freudian Psychology moved beyond Freud’s focus on biological drives, highlighting the role of social relationships, early experiences, and cultural influences in shaping personality. Horney challenged Freud’s views on gender, emphasizing the impact of societal pressures and introducing the concept of basic anxiety as a response to insecure relationships. Fromm explored how societal structures influence psychological well-being, particularly through his theories on freedom, conformity, and love. Sullivan emphasized interpersonal interactions as central to mental health. This perspective informs Psychodynamic therapy by addressing the broader social and relational contexts that contribute to psychological distress.

Bionian Psychoanalysis

Developed by Wilfred Bion, this school focuses on group dynamics, psychotic thought processes, and how the mind processes emotional experiences through concepts like “thinking” and “container-contained.” Bion explored how raw, unprocessed emotional experiences (beta elements) must be transformed into thoughts (alpha function) to be meaningfully understood. His "container-contained" model describes how a caregiver or therapist helps process overwhelming emotions, leading to psychological growth. He also examined group dynamics, identifying unconscious forces that shape collective behaviour. In psychodynamic therapy, Bionian Psychoanalysis helps patients develop the capacity for reflective thinking, emotional containment, and meaning-making.

Cultural Psychoanalysis

Advocated by theorists like Erich Fromm and Sudhir Kakar, this approach integrates psychoanalytic theory with cultural and historical analysis, exploring how societal structures influence individual psychology. Cultural Psychoanalysis focuses on how collective beliefs, traditions, and power dynamics shape identity, unconscious processes, and emotional development. Fromm emphasized how economic and political systems impact personality, distinguishing between “having” and “being” modes of existence, while Kakar explored how cultural narratives influence self-perception and mental health, particularly in non-Western societies. Therapy within this framework considers the broader sociocultural context of psychological distress, making it especially useful for addressing identity conflicts, cross-cultural challenges, and the psychological impact of social change.

Existential Psychoanalysis

Influenced by Jean-Paul Sartre, Rollo May, and Ludwig Binswanger, this school integrates existential philosophy with psychoanalytic thought, emphasizing themes of freedom, responsibility, authenticity, and the confrontation with anxiety and death. Existential Psychoanalysis views psychological distress as arising from struggles with meaning, isolation, and the limitations of human existence. Sartre explored how individuals create their own identity through choices, while May emphasized the role of existential anxiety in personal growth. Binswanger introduced a phenomenological approach, focusing on how individuals experience their world. Psychodynamic therapy encourages self-awareness, embracing uncertainty, and taking responsibility for one's life.